References

Book development approach

Earlier translation of the Yoga Sutras

I began by creating a literal translation of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, discussing each recurring term with a fellow student. I realised the importance of recurring terms and some terms with a critical foundational concept (such as ātman or samādhi).

I then realised the value that could be gained by broadening the core text to a few texts that were accessible and critical to the foundations of yoga.

Selecting the core texts

For this book, I initially chose three pillars of yoga literature:

Bhagavad Gita (classical period)
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
Hatha Yoga Pradipika

Broadening the term base

Initially, this book’s vocabulary was to be limited to these three texts. This is reflected in this final version, where around three-quarters of the Sanskrit terms discussed in this book are drawn from these three sources.

I selected terms that appear in modern classes to make this book appealing to a broader audience of modern-day yoga practitioners. The basis of this was from my own experience attending classes around the world over a 20-year period across Australia, the UK, India, and the Americas.

This was then supplemented by a scan of the most popular yoga magazines (such as Yoga Journal) and the most prominent online yoga organisations on social media.

Through this search, I compiled a list of older Vedic terms (particularly relating to philosophical concepts and mantras) and a list of modern-day āsanas. Around one-quarter of the terms that made it into the final version of this book came from these groups.

Figure 1 – Key texts focused on are spread across periods.

Selecting core 108 terms

My initial shortlist included just under 300 terms to explore and expand. The list became more targeted and impactful after an iterative process of refining, adding, and culling.

The parameters I followed in filtering the terms to include in this book were:

Diversity in time: I aimed to represent ancient, classical, medieval, and modern perspectives.
Diversity across practice fields: I covered the fundamental areas of controlled breathing, meditation, ethics, philosophy and āsanas. Intentionally avoiding a saturation of āsanas.
Common usage: I included frequently used terms in yoga classes and literature.
Bridging concepts: I preferred terms that are more likely to entice further exploration. For example terms related to chakras, mantras, and schools of philosophy—serve as gateways for deeper exploration.
Avoiding over-complexity: I excluded niche or controversial terms that might not be broadly relevant to most practitioners.

After several rounds of cuts and refinement, I had just over 100 terms, I decided to aim for 108 terms in the final list.

Why 108? In some traditions, including yogic traditions, 108 is considered to be auspicious. It is also a practical number. I wanted this project to be practical, feasible and fun, and I wanted to focus on quality rather than quantity. I have also published another book using 108 terms.[i] These 108 terms were then categorised.

Categorising the 108 terms

In Section 1, the terms are organised into seven categories. I placed each term where readers would most likely search for it.

The final categories loosely parallel the eight limbs codified by Patanjali, combining several limbs under meditation. An additional philosophy category allows for broader concepts that don’t fall neatly into the other groupings.

Some notes on the categories selected for Section 1.

Introductory terms (11 terms): Most Western readers would be familiar with these terms, even if they don’t practice yoga or know Sanskrit.
Yamas and niyamas (14 terms): These foundational guidelines remain central to many yoga traditions. They are commonly derived from the Yoga Sutras.
Āsanas (24 terms): Sourced largely from the Hatha Yoga Pradipika (medieval age) and modern practice guides, focusing on widely recognised and accessible poses.
Prāṇāyāma (14 terms): These breath-control techniques have remained relatively stable, detailed in medieval sources like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.
Dhyāna, meditation (17 terms): Practices such as meditation and mindfulness have ancient roots, appearing in texts like the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras, and Hatha Yoga Pradipika.
Darśana, philosophical terms (28 terms): Drawn from a variety of periods, these terms are ones I’ve encountered most frequently in study and practice.

Research for each term

All key terms in Section 1 have been cross-checked and cited to an authoritative source. Details of these checks and the references for every term are provided in Appendix 4. Where the verbal roots are unclear or speculative, they have been not included in this book.

The descriptions of terms were developed based on various sources, including manuals, guides, ancient texts and encyclopedias. I have tried to avoid controversial opinions or topics and keep things clear and unbiased for a modern audience.

All resources used in this book appear in Appendix 4. To build each definition, I started with my own reference library (also listed in Appendix 4) and then cross-referenced online sources. Those most frequently consulted include:

Sanskrit Dictionary, https://www.sanskritdictionary.com
Britannica, https://www.britannica.com
Yogapedia, https://www.yogapedia.com
Yoga Journal, https://www.yogajournal.com
Wikipedia, https://www.wikipedia.org.

Challenges

The research and production of this book required understanding and overcoming a number of challenges.

Interpretations or meanings of terms. Sanskrit has been used for thousands of years across different cultures and historical periods. As a result, many terms have multiple meanings or nuances. This book’s interpretations focus on what is most relevant for modern yoga classes and schools in the early 21st century.

Selection of authoritative sources. Sanskrit is studied worldwide, but the choice of resources often depends on cultural and academic contexts. For this book, I have used authoritative sources accessible to people who don’t primarily speak an Indian language. These choices are reflected in the recommended readings.

Challenges with breaking down individual terms. I found this process much more challenging than I had anticipated. This was important, however, as I have questioned what I have heard in yoga classes many times (where specific terms come from and how they are derived). I have also found that Google searches or online chat tools can be notoriously inaccurate and misleading. Some of the most prevalent challenges faced included:

Identifying verbal roots. Sanskrit grammar is built around roots, but in everyday terms, these roots may be obscured or intertwined with additional elements. Some common issues include:
Multiple possible roots. For example, depending on the context, pati can derive from pa (to protect) or pa (to drink).
Older forms. Cakra (wheel) originally relates to the root kr (to do or to make), but this link is no longer obvious. Authoritative sources like Whitney, may not list all Vedic root forms, or all derivations of them. The underlying challenge is that the periods covered are so large (over 3000 years at least) and that Vedic Sanskrit was less standardised than classical Sanskrit.
Identifying other components of terms
Ambiguous suffixes. Certain endings that look like separate suffixes may be part of the root.
Compound complexity. Terms like vīrabhadrāsana combine several terms, making it unclear which element comes from which root.
Blended prefixes. Prefixes such as a- (negation) or vi- (apart) can fuse seamlessly, losing their standalone identity.
Specialised terms. Words used in yogic or philosophical contexts may follow archaic or specialised grammatical patterns.

Despite these challenges, careful study of Sanskrit grammar, supported by reliable dictionaries and commentaries, reveals each term’s deeper meaning and historical context.

For the 108 terms listed in this book, only verifiable verbal roots, and components of terms are listed. References to each component of all terms have been provided in Appendix 4.

About the author

A little bit about my background, and where I came from in writing this book.

I was born and raised in Canberra, Australia, with family roots tracing back to the 1840s in the Barossa Valley, South Australia, and the late 1800s in Newcastle, New South Wales. My background is a blend of North Indian, German, and English.

My yoga journey began in 2002 when my mother introduced me to a local class in Canberra (Dru Yoga). Since then, my practice has deepened especially in the areas of prāṇāyāma and concentration, and meditation. I qualified as a certified Yoga Teacher in 2015.

I have an MBA from Melbourne University (which included an exchange period at Duke University). My professional experience spans business development, strategy consulting, and technology transformation across Melbourne, London, Canberra, and New York. Most recently I founded a successful consulting company.

I am fascinated by aspects of yoga that overlap with connecting with the Self through breathing, mindfulness and discipline. I have a passion for endurance challenges, having completed a 100-kilometre trail run, a full Ironman, eight half-Ironman events, numerous ultra-trail runs, and other adventures such as cycling from Manhattan to Montauk.

I’ve also spent a cumulative three years minimalist backpacking, traveling extensively by land through India, Western Europe, and the Americas, immersing myself in diverse cultures and experiences. I have taught yoga classes along the way.

My life’s journey has been deeply enriched by connecting with Sanskrit and its application in modern yoga through the development of this book.

I hope this book has been an interesting read, and that it provides some useful insights for you and your own journey.

Teaching prāṇāyāma on the beach, Australia

Vṛkṣāsana (tree pose) next to an ancient river, UK

Sources for 108 terms

The table in this section shows the specific source of Sanskrit reference information for the 108 terms listed in Section 1. By looking these up directly you can learn much more about related terms and their technical construction.

Notes:

Items starting with a root symbol (√), indicate verbal roots.
The verbal root class is provided in capitalised roman numerals.
The gender of nouns and adjectives is marked by an m, n, f for male, neuter, and female respectively.

The two key sources are:

Monier-Williams: Monier-Williams, M. (1899) A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Whitney: Whitney, W.D. (1885) The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

At the time of writing, editions of both of these texts were available at: University of Cologne, 1994–2025. Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon Project. Available at: https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de

Click here – for the listing of references for each term (as .PDF)

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